Dimension: Learning strategies
Petra Schorat-Waly
It is characteristic for the research field around learning processes that the multitude of technical terms and concepts, such as learning style, learning strategy, learner type or cognitive style are used differently depending on the author. The terminological vagueness of the field is further expressed by the fact that many authors explain the technical terms they use precisely at the beginning of their work, but do not use them precisely in the further course. Creß (2006, p. 365) suggests to arrange the theoretical conceptions on a continuum for a better delimitation: Here, the behaviors observable in the concrete learning situation represent one pole. The other pole describes relatively stable cognitive or affective behaviors that individuals exhibit across learning situations.
As the concepts of cognitive styles and learning styles are[1] both describe relatively stable behaviors grounded in personality, they belong to the cross-situational pole. They are mainly discussed in the context of adapting teaching to the learning environment, i.e. to the "strengths" of the "learning type". How teachers and students can intentionally influence or control learning is almost meaningless in this context (Wild 2000, p. 8).[2] In addition, the student body is not a homogeneous group, and a one-sided orientation of teaching to a "learning type" therefore hardly seems reasonable. Learning strategies represent the situational, diametrical pole, and are therefore the more interesting concept in the context of teaching-learning processes in studies. Learning strategies are not only defined differently by authors, but also classified. Streblow and Schiefele (2006, p. 353) state that they usually have four characteristics. According to them, learning strategies are a "sequence of efficient learning techniques" which are "used in a goal-oriented and flexible way". Although they are mostly "automated," they nevertheless remain "conscious." Learning techniques are the methods used within the learning strategy (e.g. drawing sketches, underlining texts, etc.).
The field of research on learning strategies can be broadly divided into two dominant directions: There are the "approaches-to-learning" approaches and the learning strategy conceptions based on cognitive psychology (Wild 2000, p. 10).
"Approach-to-learning" approaches
The characteristic of the "approach-to-learning" approaches is that in a given learning situation, a learner's motivation and intention to learn are considered in addition to learning strategies. Empirically well documented are the learning orientations originally identified after Marton and Säljö (1976) and validated and extended in content by other researchers such as Biggs (1987) or Entwistle and Ramsden (1983): deep approach and surface approach. The motive-learning strategy combinations additionally postulated by Biggs and Entwistle, are no longer supported by more recent research findings (Wild 2000, p. 28).
The deep approach is associated with intrinsic motivation and strategies of thorough understanding of facts, rules, and contexts. Learners in this group are interested in actively integrating new information into existing structures of knowledge and attitudes. More oriented to the reproduction of knowledge is the surface approach. These learners are characteristically very dependent on the learning plan. The main motivating factor is fear of failure. Knowledge acquisition for these learners is primarily through memorization techniques. There are several studies that have investigated which approach achieves better learning outcomes (Martin and Nicolaisen 2015, p. 14). The findings vary widely. Some studies were able to prove advantages for the group of deep processors in complex tasks with longer processing times. The surface approach performs better when narrowly defined factual knowledge was queried.
Cognitive psychology approaches
The research focus of cognitive psychology-oriented learning strategy researchers is on the analysis of the cognitive information processing process. They investigate which behaviors can support this learning process. Thus, they developed a questionnaire-based system of categories of learning strategies, to which they assigned subcategories and learning techniques conducive to learning. In German-speaking countries, the LIST (Lernen im Studium) questionnaire developed by Wild and Schiefele in the 1990s was used and further developed. Schiefele and Wild refrained from surveying motivational strategies, as these play into the other strategy categories and they thus considered a methodologically clean survey to be difficult (Martin and Nicolaisen 2015, p. 16 ff.).
The Emotional Turn in Learning Strategy Research
This changed at the beginning of the 21st century with the so-called emotional motivational turn in learning research, during which the place of emotion in cognition was re-evaluated. It was recognized that they have a major impact on our rational thinking and significantly influence memory performance. Therefore, Martin explicitly includes motivational strategies in the LSN questionnaire he designed, even though it is otherwise very close in content to the LIST questionnaire (Martin and Nicolaisen 2015, p. 17). The following table is intended to provide an overview of the category system he developed and to show, for example, some learning techniques.
Learning strategies | Learning techniques |
A Cognitive learning strategies (goal: to better absorb, store, reproduce information). | |
A.1 Improve organization and structuring of material | Mark text passages/write summaries/create mind maps |
A.2 Establish connections | Establish connections to own previous knowledge/create references to other subjects |
A.3 Critically questioning information | Considering whether what one is learning or hearing is logical/Searching for alternative explanations. |
A.4 Repeating efficiently | Shortening and spreading out repetition sequences over several days/using mnemonic bridges as a memory aid/loci method |
B. Metacognitive learning strategies (goal: to understand and control one's own learning) | |
B.1 Build and expand learning knowledge | Learn about how the brain works/talk to learning experts or advanced learners about learning |
B.2 Build learning knowledge about oneself | When learning, be intentional about regularly taking a bird's eye view of oneself/keep learning journals |
B. 3 Plan, monitor, and evaluate learning. | Set daily goals/record unanswered questions and problems |
C. Resource-oriented strategies (goal: improve the framework for learning) | |
C.1 Improve internal conditions for learning | |
C.1.1 Develop a positive attitude toward material and effort. | Regularly remind oneself that slacking off is part of any major project/ Build willingness to work harder for success when necessary. |
C.1.2 Optimize energy balance | Sleep enough to be rested the next day/ Take regular exercise breaks. |
C.1.3 Time management | Create realistic weekly schedule |
C.1.4 Anticipating difficulties | Mentally act out potentially difficult situations/build up conducive imaginations |
C.2 Improve external conditions | |
C.2.1 Optimize learning environment | Ergonomically set up the workstation/ turn off smartphones. |
C.2.2 Learning with other people | Explain facts to a critical listener/compare summaries. |
C.2.3 Search for further information | Identify missing information using databases and search engines/ask experts |
D. Motivational strategies (goal: to control feelings and moods while learning) | |
D.1 Internal motivational strategies | |
D.1.1(Self) Reward Strategies | Self-reward according to daily goals |
D.1.2 Thinking about the gain (extrinsic motivational strategies) | Thinking about the future possibilities that a learning success opens up/trying to be better than others. |
D.1.3 Experiencing that one can do something (strengthening self-efficacy) | Focusing on what has already been achieved/choosing peers that reinforce one's self-worth. |
D.1.4 Dealing positively with success and failure (self-esteem-protecting attribution) | Attribute success to one's own ability/view failure as a one-time event that can be corrected in the future |
D.1.5 Overcoming motivational crises | Activate experiential knowledge/realize that highs and lows are part of any major learning project |
D.2 Situational motivation strategies | |
D.2.1 Seek motivation in the task itself (strengthen intrinsic motivation) | Choosing task based on interest rather than expected completion time/choosing tasks with moderate difficulty level |
D.2.2 Seek freedom in pacing and planning | Ask teachers for occasional say in choice of topics/propose specific topics or projects |
Table 1: Overview of learning strategies according to Martin
Source: Martin and Nicolaisen (2015, p. 23 ff.).
The most important findings of learning strategy research can be summarized in a few key statements: Learning strategies are important determinants of academic performance. Therefore, it undoubtedly makes sense to promote strategy use among students (Streblow and Schiefele 2006, p. 360). Learners who believe in themselves and have a broad repertoire of learning strategies that they can use appropriately for the situation and task have the best learning success. The use of learning strategies can be easily and strongly influenced by teachers and learning consultants (Martin and Nicolaisen 2015, p. 49).
Literature
Biggs, J. B. (1987): Student approaches to learning and studying. Melbourne.
Creß, U. (2006): Learning orientation, learning styles, learning types, and cognitive styles. In: H. Mandl and H. F. Friedrich (Eds.): Handbuch Lernstrategien. Göttingen, 365-277.
Entwistle, N. J.; Ramsden, P. (1983): Understanding student learning. London: Croom-Helm.
Martin, P.-Y.; Nicolaisen, T. (2015): Introduction and basics. In: P.-Y Martin and T. Nicolaisen (Eds.): Fostering learning strategies. Weinheim: Beltz Juventa, pp. 9-69.
Marton, F.; Säljö, R. (1976): On qualitative differences in learning - outcome and process. In: British Journal of Educational Psychology (64), 4-11; 115-127.
Streblow, L.; Schiefele, U. (2006): Learning strategies in higher education. In: H. Mandl and H. F. Friedrich (Eds.): Handbook of learning strategies. Göttingen: Hogrefe, pp. 352-364.
Wild, K.-P. (2000): Learning strategies in higher education. Münster: Waxmann Verlag.
Citation
Schorat-Waly, Petra (2017): Dimension: learning strategies. In: Rump, Jutta; Buß, Imke; Kaiser, Janina; Schiedhelm, Melanie; Schorat-Waly, Petra: Toolbox for good teaching in a diverse student body. Working Papers of the Ludwigshafen University of Applied Sciences, No. 6. www. hwg-lu.de/arbeitspapiere
Use according to Creative Commons under attribution (please use given citation) and for non-commercial purposes.
[1] Still very popular is the theory of Vester (1998). He distinguishes - according to their preference for sensory channels - between four types of learning: the auditory ("by hearing and speaking"), the visual ("by eye, by observation"), the haptic ("by touching and feeling"), and the intellectual type of learning. However, this theory is neither theoretically sound nor empirically proven (Creß 2006, p. 372). Still undisputed, however, is the statement that all learners benefit from well-structured learning content offered on multiple sensory channels (Martin and Nicolaisen 2015, p. 15).
[2] Creß only assigns the cognitive style to the situational pole and locates the learning style between both poles.